第7章 A-movement(A-移位)
本章所有题都在回答一个派生问题:主语这个论元,从它获得 θ 角色的那个低位,怎么爬到句首 spec-TP 的? 下面把做题要用的七件武器一次备齐。
武器①:VP-Internal Subject Hypothesis(VPISH,主语内在 VP 假说)
传统看法以为主语直接坐在 spec-TP。MP 改成:主语先在 VP 内部(spec-VP)与动词合并,作为谓词的外在论元获得外在 θ 角色,再由 A-移位升到 spec-TP。证据来自:Belfast 英语的虚词 there 与量化主语同句共存、引语倒装里主语留在原位、习语主语(all hell / the cat)的不可分性、浮动量词 all/both 的统辖关系。
Some students should get distinctions:主语从 spec-VP 经 A-移位到 spec-TP(t_i 为链尾拷贝)
习语证据:习语 all hell break loose 是个不可拆的单位,其中 all hell 不能换成近义成分(*the whole inferno escaped)。VPISH 解释:all hell 本是 break loose 的 spec-VP 主语,靠 A-移位才升到 will 的主语位,故习语块 break loose 始终是 V′ 姊妹。
习语证据:All hell will break loose(all hell 本是 break loose 的 spec-VP 主语)
武器②:题元角色 θ-roles 与 θ-criterion
谓词给论元指派语义角色(θ 角色)。原书(22)的角色表是判题元的字典,做题时照此标注:
| θ 角色 | 释义 | 原书例 |
|---|---|---|
| THEME | 承受动作影响的实体 | Mary fell over |
| AGENT | 自发发起动作的实体 | Debbie hit Harry |
| EXPERIENCER | 经历心理状态者 | I like syntax |
| LOCATIVE | 所在/发生地点 | He hid it under the bed |
| GOAL | 动作到达的终点实体 | John went home |
| SOURCE | 动作出发的实体 | He returned from Paris |
| INSTRUMENT | 借以行事的工具 | He hit it with a hammer |
表7-1 题元角色速查(原书22)
θ-criterion:每个论元只担一个 θ 角色、每个 θ 角色只派给一个论元。直接 θ-标记补语,间接(经 V′=动词+补语整体)θ-标记主语。助动词 be/have/will 等不 θ-标任何东西。
及物论元结构:The police have arrested the suspect(补语 suspect=THEME 直接 θ-标;主语 police=AGENT 间接 θ-标)
武器③:非宾格谓词 unaccusative
arise / remain / happen / occur / emerge / seem… 这类一元谓词,它的“主语”其实是内部补语(THEME),没有外在 AGENT,也不授宾格(故补语得主格)。证据:能跟虚词 there 共现、能被 wh-移位抽取补语(CED 允许抽补语)、West Ulster 量化词 stranding、助动词选 be、分词可作形容词。
非宾格:There have arisen several complications(虚词 there 占 spec-TP,several complications 留在补语位)
关键分叉:同一 VP 若没有外在论元(无 spec-VP),T 的 [EPP] 就能吸引 c-command 到的最近名词补语上移;若 VP 自己带了外在主语(及物/作格),那个主语才是被 T 吸引的最近名词。这就是 Attract Closest Principle。
同一非宾格 VP 的另一满足方式:Several complications have arisen(吸引最近补语上 spec-TP,而非用虚词)
武器④:被动谓词 passivisation
被动句表层主语=主动句的宾语(THEME 补语)被提升;施事由 by-短语携带。被动分词本身不是 T,真正带 [EPP]、要求结构主语的是助动词 be(T 位置)。被动允许虚词 there 与 discontinuous spellout(No evidence was found of any corruption)。
被动+分裂拼出:No evidence was found of any corruption(头拼出 No evidence,脚拼出 of any corruption)
武器⑤:长距离被动 long-distance passivisation
被动/提升可跨不定式 TP:名词从内嵌 TP 的补语位,一步跨到主句 spec-TP。前提是内嵌 to-不定式是 TP 而不是 CP(Believe 选 TP 补语的 ECM 动词);若是 CP 补语则不能提取(对比 Nobody intended [for you to get hurt] vs *You weren’t intended for…)。
长距离被动:Several riots are believed to have occurred(名词跨内嵌 TP 升到主句 spec-TP)
武器⑥:提升 raising vs 控制 control——做题主判据
这是 7.1 二十题的核心。raising 谓词(seem/appear/tend/happen…)是一元谓词,只选一个 TP 不定式补语,不 θ-标它的主语;control 谓词(want/try/hope…)是二元,选 CP 不定式补语,用 EXPERIENCER/AGENT θ-标主句主语,补语主语是 PRO。四条可操作判据:
| 判据 | raising(提升) | control(控制) |
|---|---|---|
| 虚词主语 | 可有虚词 it/there(It seems…/There seems…) | 无虚词(*It wants…/ *There wants…) |
| 习语主语 | 习语主语能提升(All hell seems to break loose) | 习语主语做 control 主语违法(*All hell wants to…) |
| 被动后真值 | 提升句被动后同义(John seems to have been arrested ≈ …) | control 句被动后不同义(*John wants to be helped ≠ …) |
| 主语选择限制 | 允许无生命/任意主语 | 要求有生命/可欲望者(*My gesture wants to…) |
表7-2 raising vs control 四大判据
武器⑦:不定式 to 带不带 EPP
原书(90):定式 T 带 [EPP],控制不定式 to 不带 [EPP](PRO 原位);但本章后来认为 raising/passive 的 defective to 带 [EPP](见第8章)。7.2 提示明确假设:本册第7章做题时定式 T 有 [EPP]、不定式 to 无 [EPP]。
题干(原书 p276–277):Say whether the italicised verbs function as raising or control predicates (or are ambiguous), and what evidence there is to support your analysis. Provide a detailed outline of the derivation of any one of the control sentences and any one of the raising sentences, giving arguments in support of your answer.
二十句(斜体即待判谓词):
| # | 句子(斜体谓词) | 判定 |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Employers tend to exploit employees | raising |
| 2 | John has decided to quit the university | control |
| 3 | We came to appreciate the classes | raising(半实义,“终于”) |
| 4 | You have to help me | control(情态义,have to=must) |
| 5 | They failed to hit the target | raising |
| 6 | He tried to rectify the situation | control |
| 7 | He refused to sign the petition | control |
| 8 | He’s beginning to irritate me | raising(begin 半提升) |
| 9 | They attempted to pervert the course of justice | control |
| 10 | I happened to be passing your house | raising |
| 11 | He is going to quit his job | raising(be going to 将来时标记) |
| 12 | He stands to lose a fortune | raising |
| 13 | John promises to be a good student | control(主语承诺,施事) |
| 14 | He needs to have a shave | raising/歧义(人作主语偏 raising,need 可被动) |
| 15 | They managed to open the door | control(施事“设法”) |
| 16 | We intend to close the store | control |
| 17 | The weather is threatening to ruin the weekend | raising/拟人称控制(无生命主语+威胁义) |
| 18 | We are hoping to get a visa | control |
| 19 | She has chosen to ignore him | control |
| 20 | They are planning to visit London | control |
表7-3 Exercise 7.1 二十题判定总表(编者意见)
逐题证据说明
| 谓词 | 判定 | 关键证据 |
|---|---|---|
| 1 tend | raising | 可有虚词(There tends to be…)、无生命主语(Syntax tends to…)、被动后同义(Employees tend to be exploited ≈ Employers tend to exploit employees)。原书示范答案即取此。 |
| 2 decided | control | decide 是意志动词,主语 John 是 AGENT/决策者,须有生命;不能说 *There decided to be…,无虚词。 |
| 3 came to | raising | come to=“渐渐/终于”,不派施事;We 不是“来”的施事而是 appreciate 的经验/题元;虚化可接 it came to be known that…。 |
| 4 have to | control | have to=情态 must,主语 You 是 help 的施事(真题元),补语是封闭情态结构;不与虚词共现(*There has to be 另作提升,但实义“必须”句里 You 是题元)。 |
| 5 failed | raising | 主语不必是施事(The attempt failed to…/It failed to…);fail 不向主语派责任 θ 角色,只是“事件未达成”。 |
| 6 tried | control | try 是意志施事谓词,He 是尝试者 AGENT;不可接虚词 *There tried to be…。 |
| 7 refused | control | refuse 须有生命施事,He 是拒绝者;*It/There refused to… 不成立。 |
| 8 beginning | raising | begin 作事件起始标记,可接虚词(It began to rain)、无生命主语(The show began to bore);He’s beginning to irritate me 里 He 是 irritate 的题元而非“开始”的施事。 |
| 9 attempted | control | attempt=试图,须施事 They;不可虚词化。 |
| 10 happened | raising | happen 是典型提升(碰巧),可虚词(It happened that…)、无生命主语(The mistake happened to…);I 不是“发生”的施事。 |
| 11 be going to | raising | be going to 是将来时标记,已虚化;可有虚词(It’s going to rain / There’s going to be a riot)。 |
| 12 stands to | raising | stand to=“势必”,无施事性;可接无生命主语(The budget stands to suffer)。 |
| 13 promises | control | 此处 John 是“承诺者”AGENT(John promises to be…=他许诺),不是“有望”的提升义(That promises to be… 才偏提升,故轻微歧义)。 |
| 14 needs | 歧义 | 人作主语 He needs to shave 偏 raising(need 可被动:A shave needs to be had ≈ He needs to have a shave),但仍带经验者义;教材常归 raising。 |
| 15 managed | control | manage to=“设法做到”,They 是施事;不可虚词化。 |
| 16 intend | control | intend 是意向谓词,We 是意向者;不可虚词(*There intends to…)。 |
| 17 threatening | 拟人称/raising | The weather 无生命却“威胁”,主语不是真威胁施事,偏提升式拟人称;若改人作主语则转 control。 |
| 18 hoping | control | hope 是心理谓词,We 是 EXPERIENCER;不可虚词。 |
| 19 chosen | control | choose 须施事 She,“她选择不理他”。 |
| 20 planning | control | plan 是意向谓词,They 是计划者;不可虚词。 |
表7-4 Exercise 7.1 逐题判定依据
示范推导(raising 题=第1句,原书 Model answer)
原句:Employers tend to exploit employees。判定:tend 是 raising 谓词(一元、不 θ-标主语、可有虚词/无生命主语、被动后真值不变)。
raising 示范:Employers tend to exploit employees(employers 本是 exploit 主语,被 tend 的 [EPP] 提到主句 spec-TP)
示范推导(control 题=第2句 John has decided to quit the university,编者补)
control 示范:John has decided [CP e [TP PRO to quit the university]](John 是 decide 的 AGENT,PRO 原位)
7.1 逐题推理过程(编者详解)
下面把二十题里最容易判错、最值得展开的十道,按“先问 θ 角色、再用四判据验”的顺序展开。其余纯粹 control 的题(decide/refuse/attempt/intend/choose/plan/hope)理由相同,不再赘述。
第1题 tend(raising):tend 选一个不定式 TP 补语,是一元谓词。它不给主语派任何 θ 角色——证据有三:其一,它允许虚词主语 There tends to be a lot of confusion about syntax,there 不是“倾向”的经历者;其二,它允许无生命主语 Syntax tends to baffle people,一个句法现象谈不上有“倾向”的意愿;其三,被动后真值不变,Employers tend to exploit employees ≈ Employees tend to be exploited by employers,说明主语可以自由地从主句论元换成被动句里的旧宾语。三证合一,tend 是 raising:主语 employers 本是 exploit 的 AGENT,被 tend 的 [EPP] 提到主句 spec-TP。
第3题 come to(raising):come to appreciate 里的 come 已不表“来到”,而是“终于、渐渐”的体标记。We 不是 come 的移动起点(没人真的“来到”课程),而是 appreciate 的论元。come to 可接虚词义主语 It came to be known that…,故归 raising。这类半实义化的谓词是做题高频陷阱:看见 come/turn out,不要被字面义骗去当控制。
第5题 failed(raising):fail to hit the target 里,主语 They 未必是“失败”的责任者——可以说 The attempt failed to convince、It failed to rain,甚至事件本身做主语。fail 不向主语指派 AGENT/责任 θ 角色,只是“某事件未达成”,故是 raising。判据:能不能让非施事、虚词化的主语出现?能,就是 raising。
第8题 beginning(raising):begin to irritate me 中,begin 是事件起始标记,Irritate 才是真正谓词,He 是 irritate 的 EXPERIENCER/被惹者,不是“开始”的施事。begin 可接虚词 It began to rain、可接无生命主语 The show began to bore the audience。若误判为 control,会错以为 He 有“开始”这个意志——但“他开始惹我”并不等于他有意惹我,正好说明 begin 不 θ-标 He。
第10题 happened(raising):happen to be passing your house 是典型“碰巧”。I 不是“发生”的施事,恰恰相反,I 只是偶然路过。happen 有虚词/提升变体 It happened that I was passing your house,that-小句才是真正的事件命题。主语 I 是 be passing 的题元,被 happen 的 [EPP] 提上来。
第11题 be going to(raising):be going to 在现代英语里已彻底虚化为将来时标记,与空间的 go 无关。证据:It’s going to rain、There’s going to be a riot——主语是虚词/无生命,不可能有“去”的施事义。故 He is going to quit 里的 he 是 quit 的题元,不是 going 的施事。
第13题 promises(歧义):John promises to be a good student 有两读。一读“John 承诺、保证”,此时 John 是 promise 的 AGENT(承诺者),是 control;另一读“有迹象显示、可望”,That promises to be a good student,此时主语是被评估的事件,偏 raising。人作主语时 control 读占优,故教材标 control,但要点破其歧义。
第14题 needs(raising/边缘):He needs to have a shave 表面像 control(他有“需要”),但 need 能被动化:A shave needs to be had ≈ He needs to have a shave,且能接不定式的提升结构 There needs to be…。多数生成语法教材把 need 归 raising 类(情态 need)。这是“边缘/歧义”题,关键看它能否被动、能否虚词化——能,就偏 raising。
第17题 threatening(拟人/raising):The weather is threatening to ruin the weekend,天气本无意志,“威胁”是拟人。主语 weather 不是 threat 的真施事,而是 ruin 的题元来源,故偏提升式拟人;若改人作主语 She is threatening to quit,立即转为 control(她真的在威胁)。同一谓词随主语性质在 raising/control 间漂移,正是“谓词选择的是论元的语义属性”的活例。
第4题 have to(control 的情态陷阱):You have to help me 里 have to 已情态化为 must,不是“拥有”。但它仍要求主语是 help 的真题元(You 是 help 的施事),且不能 *There has to be 读成此义(那句是另一个存在提升用法)。做题时把 have to 当情态助动词处理:主语是内嵌谓词的论元,主句不另派 θ 角色,但也不允许虚词化到本句义,故按控制/情态归并。
题干(原书 p278):Discuss the derivation of the following sentences. 提示:定式 be 紧跟形容词时是 VP 的 V(系词),紧跟被动/进行分词时是 AUXP 的 AUX;定式 T 带 [EPP]、不定式 to 不带;he 为 EXPERIENCER,其余论元均为 THEME。5a 注意 any 的极性义;5b/c 注意 discontinuous spellout;6 注意 wh-主语句法(§6.6)。
b There were reported to remain some problems.
c There were thought likely to remain some problems.
b A change of policy seems to be envisaged.
c A change of policy is thought likely to be envisaged.
b Differences of opinion are beginning to emerge.
c Differences of opinion appear to be starting to emerge.
b He is planning to leave the country.
c He is thought to be planning to leave the country.
b No details of any threats seem likely to be revealed.
c No details are expected to be revealed of any threats.
b What is expected to happen?
c What seems to be likely to happen?
逐组派生要点
| 组 | 派生要点 | 考点 |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | a 系词 certain 是 raising 形容词,some problems 是 remain 的 THEME 补语;不定式 to 无 EPP,故主句 are 的 EPP 由虚词 there 满足。b reported 是被动分词,c thought likely 是“被动分词+raising 形容词”叠层,均允许虚词 there 占主句、some problems 留在最内层补语。 | there 句;raising 形容词 certain |
| 2 | a 简单被动:a change of policy 是 envisaged 的 THEME 补语,被动提升到 spec-TP。b seems 提升,c thought likely 双层提升,名词逐级上移。 | 名词主语(非虚词) |
| 3 | a emerge 是非宾格,主语 Differences of opinion 本是补语,被 are 提升。b begin 是半提升谓词,c appear…to be starting 两层提升。 | 非宾格+提升叠层 |
| 4 | a He 是进行时 leaving 分句的题元。b plan 是 control 谓词:He 是 plan 的 EXPERIENCER/施事,内嵌 to leave 的主语是 PRO(不提升)。c thought 是被动提升,把 He 从内嵌提到主句。 | 关键:b 是 control,PRO 不动 |
| 5 | a No details 被动提升;any threats 中 any 是极性词(negative polarity),须由否定词 no 成分统制。b/c 分裂拼出:b 头拼 No details of any threats,c 头拼 No details、脚拼 of any threats(§6.3 discontinuous)。 | 极性 any+分裂拼出 |
| 6 | wh-主语:what 本是 happen 的题元,wh-移位到 [Spec,CP];b/c 在提升结构里 what 同时经历 wh-移位与 A-提升,successive-cyclic。 | wh-主语 A′-移位 |
表7-5 Exercise 7.2 六组派生要点
示范推导(原书 Model answer for 1a:There are certain to remain some problems)
7.2-1a:There are certain to remain some problems(there 满足主句 EPP,some problems 留在 remain 补语位)
7.2 里最易错的三组
7.2 六组逐句派生详解
第1组(there 句,系词/被动/提升叠层):1a There are certain to remain some problems 里,remain 是非宾格,some problems 是其 THEME 补语;certain 是 raising 形容词,to remain some problems 作 certain 的补语;系词 be 紧跟形容词 certain,故 be 是 VP 的 V。主句定式 are 带 [EPP],因 Prefer-Merge-Over-Move,先尝试合并虚词 there 占 spec-TP。1b There were reported to remain… 把 certain 换成被动分词 reported:reported 后接不定式 to,是被动 AUX;论元关系不变,there 仍占主句。1c There were thought likely to remain… 是“被动分词 thought+raising 形容词 likely”两层套叠,some problems 仍在最内 remain 的补语位,there 一路占主句 spec-TP。三句共同点:最内层名词补语不动,虚词 there 在外层满足 EPP。
第2组(名词主语被动/提升):2a A change of policy was envisaged 是简单被动:a change of policy 本是 envisaged 的 THEME 补语,被动分词不授宾格,该补语无格,被定式 was 的 [EPP] 吸引升到 spec-TP。2b …seems to be envisaged 加一层提升谓词 seem:名词从 envisaged 的补语,先过不定式 to 的 EPP(本册假设 to 无 EPP,故直接被主句 seems 吸引),升到主句 spec-TP。2c …is thought likely to be envisaged 三层:envisaged 补语 → likely 提升 → thought 被动,名词 successively-cyclic 逐级上升。
第3组(非宾格+半提升):3a Differences of opinion are emerging 里 emerge 是非宾格,differences 本是补语,被 are 提升。3a 与非宾格原型一致。3b …are beginning to emerge 加半提升谓词 begin:begin 不 θ-标主语,differences 仍是 emerge 的题元,被 begin 所在定式 are 提升。3c …appear to be starting to emerge 是 appear(提升)+start(半提升)+emerge(非宾格)三层,名词从最内 emerge 补语一路升到主句。
第4组(control 与提升的分水岭):4a He is leaving the country 是进行时,He 是 leave 的施事题元。4b He is planning to leave… 是全组关键:plan 是 control 谓词,He 是 plan 的 EXPERIENCER/施事(他在计划),内嵌 to leave 的主语是 PRO(受 He 控制),He 不跨进内嵌小句。4c He is thought to be planning… 把 4b 包进被动提升:He 从内嵌 plan 的题元位置,经 thought 的被动提升到主句 spec-TP;注意内嵌 plan 仍是 control,PRO=He 的控制语。这一组专门考“control 谓词外面再套提升”的嵌套。
第5组(极性 any+分裂拼出):5a No details are going to be revealed:no details 是 revealed 的题元补语,被动提升;going to 是将来时提升结构。5b No details of any threats seem likely to be revealed:of any threats 整个 PP 跟随名词,头拼出 No details of any threats 在句首;any 是负极性词,必须被否定成分 no 成分统制,此处 no 统制 any,合法。5c No details are expected to be revealed of any threats 是分裂拼出:句首头拼出 No details,of any threats 留在 VP 补语原位(脚拼出);关键是 no 仍成分统制原位的 any,极性条件照样满足——这正是 §6.3 discontinuous spellout 的用例。
第6组(wh-主语):6a What has happened? 里 what 是 happen 的题元(非宾格补语),既是 A-移位主语又经 wh-移位到 [Spec,CP]。6b What is expected to happen? what 先在内嵌 happen 处获题元,经 expected 的提升到中间 spec-TP,再 wh-移到句首 C。6c What seems to be likely to happen? 三层:happen 补语 what → likely → seems → wh-到 [Spec,CP]。wh-主语句的难点是 A-移位(满足 EPP)与 A′-移位(满足 wh 特征)叠加,但题元始终来自最内层谓词。

