S299 · 第 2 章 Words(词的范畴)

MP 刷题 · Radford Minimalist Syntax
Syntax · S299

第 2 章 Words(词的范畴)

12.0 本章做题必备:给每个词贴对范畴标签

Exercise 2.1/2.2 的本质,是对句中每个词做「范畴判定」。Radford §2.2–2.4 给出三套判据:语义(notional,不可靠)、形态(屈折/派生)、句法(分布与替换)。做题时句法测试优先,语义只作辅助。

范畴 缩写 语义(辅助) 形态标志 句法分布/测试
名词 N N 人/物/地 可数单复数 -s;不可数 可被 the/a 限定、可作主语宾语、可加形容词修饰
动词 V V 动作/状态 base/perfect/past/-s/-ing 四形 可跟在 can 后(They can ___);可带宾语
形容词 A A 性质 可加 un-/very/-er/-est/-ly 可跟在 very 后(They are very ___);修饰名词
副词 ADV ADV 方式 -ly 修饰动词/形容词/句子;very 多不能修饰绝对副词
介词 P P 位置/关系 无屈折 可被 right/straight 强化(right in the room);带宾格宾语

表 2-1 五大词汇范畴(substantive/content words)判别

教材反复警告:语义会骗人——assassination 是动作却是名词,fast food 里 fast 是形容词,Cambridge bridge 里 Cambridge 是名词不是介词。形态也有漏洞(irregular、多义后缀 -en/-ing 可名可形)。所以替换测试 substitution 是金标准:一个词能被 N/V/P/A/ADV 中的哪一类替换,它就是哪一类。

【卡片 2-1】词汇范畴 vs 功能范畴(§2.4)

名词、动词、形容词、副词、介词有实质描述内容(可带反义词),叫词汇/实体范畴(lexical/substantive)。而冠词、助动词、代词、补语化成分、不定式 to 没有实质内容,只编码 person/number/gender/case 等语法信息,叫功能范畴(functional)。判断法:有反义词的是词汇词,没有反义词的是功能词。

词汇/实体范畴(有描述内容) 功能范畴(编码语法信息)
成员 N V A ADV P D/Q、PRN、AUX(T)、C、不定式 to
例 loss↔gain, rise↔fall, tall↔short do/you/that/if/for 无反义词
内容 具体、因词而异 抽象、系统(person/number/gender/case)

表 2-2 词汇范畴与功能范畴对立

【卡片 2-2】限定词 D vs 量化词 Q(§2.5)

限定词(the/this/my)与量化词(some/many/every)都在名词前,但教材用四条证据把它们分开:

  • 不可堆叠:形容词可无限堆叠(tall dark handsome strangers),限定词/量化词不能彼此堆叠(*the some books、*all both twins)。
  • 搭配数/可数性:a 只接单数可数,much 接不可数,many 接复数;形容词(nice/simple)三类名词都能接。
  • definiteness effect:fronting who/which 时,量化短语 any pictures of 可前置,限定短语 the pictures of 前置则存疑。
  • 必须带名词:单数可数名词不能光杆(*Chair!),必须有 D/Q。
NPDtheAPAtallAPAyoungNman

名词短语内部语序:限定词 the 在前,形容词可堆叠(tall young),中心语名词 man 在后

【卡片 2-3】三类代词(§2.6)

英语代词不是一类,按其替代对象分三种:

类型 缩写 例 替代什么
N-代词(pro-N) PRN/N-pro one(I’ll take the red one) 替代整个名词短语,可被形容词修饰(the red one)
Q-代词 Q-pro some/many/all/any(Many died) 量化词独立使用,后无名词
D-代词 D-pro this/that/these(I don’t like this) 限定词独立使用;we/you 修饰名词时是 D(We republicans)

表 2-3 三类代词

人称代词 I/you/he/she/it/we/they 编码 person/number/gender/case,有主格/宾格/属格三形。教材倾向把人称代词分析为 D-代词(D-pronouns)。

人称 数 主格 Nom 宾格 Acc 属格 Gen
1 单 I me my/mine
1 复 we us our/ours
2 单/复 you you your/yours
3 单 阳 he him his
3 单 阴 she her hers
3 单 中 it it its
3 复 they them their/theirs

表 2-4 英语人称代词的格变化

DPDWeNPrepublicans

We republicans:We 作前置限定词(D-pro)修饰名词 republicans,而非独立代词

【卡片 2-4】助动词 vs 主动词:四大诊断(§2.7)

助动词(AUX,本书记为 T)是功能词,标记 tense/aspect/voice/modality;主动词是词汇词。Exercise 2.1 整组 1 就是考这个。四条诊断:

诊断 助动词 AUX 主动词 V
① 倒装 inversion 可直接移到主语前(Can you swim?) 不能,需 do-support(*Like you coffee? → Do you like…?)
② 直接否定 可直接加 not/n’t(cannot/isn’t) 不能直接加 not,需 do(*I like not… → I don’t like)
③ 附加疑问 tag 可直接进 tag(He can’t, can he?) 需 do(You like her, don’t you?)
④ 补语类型 只接 bare verb(gone/staying) 可接名词/不定式等多种补语

表 2-5 助动词与主动词的四大句法诊断

TPDPJohnT’Thas 助动词VPVdone it

John has done it:has 是完成体助动词(T),后接过去分词 done;与 John has a car(has=主动词「有」)不同

【卡片 2-5】不定式 to vs 介词 to(§2.8)

Exercise 2.1 整组 2 的核心。两个 to 同形不同类:

不定式 to(功能词 T) 介词 to(词汇词 P)
语义 无词汇义,纯功能 有方向义「到」
可否被 right/straight 强化 不能(*went right to home) 能(went straight to the police)
补语 只接不定式 to V(bare/infinitive),不接 V-ing 接名词短语;若接动词必须是 V-ing(object to doing)
可否省略补语(ellipsis) 能(I don’t want to [= to go]) 不能(*I don’t want to [= to the cinema])
类比 像助动词 should(T) 像普通介词 on/for

表 2-6 不定式 to 与介词 to 的判别

TPDPExecutivesT’TlikeVPTOtoVPVdrive to work

Executives like to drive to work:第一个 to 是不定式标记 T(后接原形 drive),不是介词

【卡片 2-6】补语化成分 C(§2.9)

C 引导补语小句:that/if 引导限定小句,for 引导不定式小句。C 是功能词,标记 embedded clause、finite/non-finite、force(陈述/疑问/虚拟)。

C 引导小句 force 例
that 限定 陈述 declarative I think that you may be right
if/whether 限定 疑问 interrogative I doubt if you can help me
for 非限定(不定式) 虚拟 irrealis I’m anxious for you to receive the best treatment

表 2-7 补语化成分 C 的性质

CPCthatTPDPyouT’TmayVPVbe right

I think [CP that [TP you may be right]]:that 是补语化成分 C,引导限定陈述小句

同一个 that 在 *I refuse to believe that* 里是 C(后接小句),在 *I refuse to believe that*(口语 /ðæt/ 重读)里却像限定词。教材 §2.9 用语音(弱读 /ðət/ vs 重读 /ðæt/)、能否被 this/the 替换、能否独立使用三条证据把 C-that 与 D-that 分开:C-that 不能单独用、不能被 this 替换;D-that 可以(that incident)。

DPDthatNPincident

I’m sure about that incident:that 是限定词 D,后接名词 incident(重读 /ðæt/)

CPCCan 倒装TPDPyouT’tVPVswim

助动词倒装测试:Can you swim? 中情态助动词 can 直接移到主语前;主动词 swim 不能这样移(*Swim you?)

【卡片 2-7】labelled bracketing 缩写与特征(§2.10–2.11)

缩写 范畴 缩写 范畴
N 名词 V 动词
A 形容词 ADV 副词
P 介词 D/DET 限定词
Q 量化词 T/INFL 时态标记(助动词/不定式 to)
C/COMP 补语化成分 PRN 代词

表 2-8 labelled bracketing 通用缩写

Chomsky 主张所有词都可用两组特征 [±V](动词性)、[±N](名词性)分解:动词 [+V,-N]、名词 [-V,+N]、形容词 [+V,+N]、介词 [-V,-N]。功能词与对应词汇词同类但带 [±F](功能性)。

+N(名词性) -N(非名词性)
+V(动词性) 形容词 A [+V,+N] 动词 V [+V,-N]
-V(非动词性) 名词 N [-V,+N] 介词 P [-V,-N]

表 2-9 [±V]/[±N] 范畴特征矩阵

22.1 Workbook Exercise 2.1 逐题精解

【英文原题】Exercise 2.1

Discuss the grammatical and categorial properties of the highlighted words in each of the following examples, giving arguments in support of your analysis.

(译文:讨论下列各例中加粗/高亮词的语法与范畴性质,给出论证。)

2.1.1 第 1 组:need/dare/is/may/has/has to/used to 到底是助动词还是动词?

教材 model answer 先给了判据:need/dare 像 will/shall/can/may/must 一样是情态助动词——它们没有 -s 第三人称屈折、后接裸不定式(bare infinitive,不带 to)、可倒装进问句、可直接接 not/n’t 否定。但若接带 to 的不定式,它们就是普通限定动词。

例 高亮词 判定 论证
1a Nobody need/dare say anything need/dare 情态助动词 T 后接裸不定式 say(无 to);无人称 -s;可倒装 Need anyone say…?;可否定 needn’t
1b Nobody need/dare to ask questions need/dare 普通限定动词 V 后接带 to 的不定式 to ask;不能像助动词那样直接倒装/否定(*He needn’t to ask)
1c John is working hard is 进行体助动词 T 后接现在分词 working;可倒装 Is John…?;可否定 isn’t
1d John may stay at home may 情态助动词 T 后接裸不定式 stay;无 -s;可倒装 May John…?;可否定 may not
1e John has done it has 完成体助动词 T 后接过去分词 done;可倒装 Has John…?;可否定 hasn’t
1f John has to go there has to 半情态/短语,has 为 T have to 表「必须」,have 仍有助动词性(Has he to…? / He hasn’t to…? 边缘),但带 to 补语
1g John used to go there quite often used to 半情态 T used to 表过去习惯;带 to;否定/疑问形式特殊(usedn’t to / Did he use to…?)

表 2-10 第 1 组高亮词范畴判定(对照表 2-5 四诊断)

关键区分:1a 的 need/dare 后无 to(say anything),是助动词;1b 的 need/dare 后有 to(to ask),是主动词。同一词 need 在 1a=助动词、1b=主动词,这正是教材强调的「一个词可跨范畴,要看它在本句的分布」。
TPDPNobodyT’Tneed/dare 助动VPVsay anything

1a Nobody need say anything:need/dare 后接裸不定式 say,是情态助动词(T)

2.1.2 第 2 组:到处都是 to——哪个是介词 to,哪个是不定式 to?

教材 model answer 对 2a 的示范:2a *I look forward to learning to drive* 里有两个 to。第一个 to(forward to)能被 right/straight 强化吗?不能——*look forward right to learning 不合法;但它像典型介词一样有反义(forward to ↔ away from),且可接宾格代词(forward to them),却不能像典型介词那样只接 V-ing 而排斥不定式——等等,恰恰相反:第一个 to 后接的是 learning(V-ing)。教材结论:第一个 to 是介词(后接动名词 learning),第二个 to 是不定式标记(后接原形 drive)。

例 高亮 to 判定 论证
2a Executives like to drive to work like to / to work 不定式 to(第一个);介词 to(第二个) like to drive:to 后接原形 drive,是不定式标记;to work:to 表方向「到岗」,是介词
2b I look forward to learning to drive forward to / to drive 介词 to / 不定式 to forward to 后接动名词 learning(介词性);to drive 后接原形(不定式标记)
2c It’s difficult to get him to work to get / to work 不定式 to / 不定式 to 两个 to 都后接原形动词(get/work),均为不定式标记;him 是 to get 的宾语
2d I’ve never felt tempted to turn to taking drugs to turn / to taking 不定式 to / 介词 to to turn 后接原形;turn to 是短语介词,后接动名词 taking drugs
2e Better to yield to temptation than to submit to deprivation! to yield / to temptation / to submit / to deprivation 不定式 to / 介词 to / 不定式 to / 介词 to yield to temptation、submit to deprivation 中 to 后接名词(介词);to yield、to submit 后接原形(不定式)
2f Failure to achieve sometimes drives people to drink to achieve / to drink 不定式 to / 介词 to failure to achieve:to 后接原形(不定式);drive people to drink:to 后接名词(介词,「到喝酒的地步」)
2g Try to go to sleep to go / to sleep 不定式 to / 介词 to try to go:to 后接原形(不定式);go to sleep:to 后接名词 sleep(介词,固定习语)

表 2-11 第 2 组每个 to 的范畴判定

统一口诀:to 后接原形动词(drive/turn/go)→ 不定式标记 T;to 后接名词/动名词(work/taking drugs/sleep/temptation)→ 介词 P。拿不准时做两个测试:能否被 right/straight 强化(介词可以,不定式不可以);能否省略补语(不定式可以,介词不可以)。

2.1.3 第 3 组:for 是介词还是补语化成分?

教材 helpful hints 专门用 arrange 举例:*I can arrange for immediate closure of the account*(for 是介词,后接名词短语)vs *I can arrange for the account to be closed immediately*(for 后接不定式小句)。介词 for 的名词补语可以被提前(*Immediate closure of the account, I can certainly arrange for*),但补语化成分 for 的小句补语不能提前(*The account to be closed immediately, I can certainly arrange for* 不合法)。

例 高亮 for 判定 论证
3a It is important for parents to spend time with their children for 补语化成分 C for 后接不定式小句 parents to spend…;可被 that 替换(It is important that parents should spend…)
3b It would be disastrous for me for my driving-licence to be withdrawn 第一个 for me / 第二个 for 介词 P / 补语化成分 C for me:后接宾格代词 me,是介词;for my licence to be withdrawn:后接不定式小句,是 C
3c He was arrested for being drunk for 介词 P for 后接动名词 being drunk(表原因),名词性
3d We are hoping for a peace agreement to be signed for 介词 P(边缘) for a peace agreement:后接名词短语;to be signed 是后置修饰
3e Ships head for the nearest port in a storm for 介词 P head for:后接名词 the nearest port,表方向
3f Congress voted for the treaty to be ratified for 介词 P vote for:后接名词短语 the treaty;to be ratified 为目的修饰
3g It would be unfortunate for the students to fail their exams for 补语化成分 C for the students to fail…:后接不定式小句,the students 是小句主语(宾格)

表 2-12 第 3 组 for 的范畴判定

TPCforTPDPparentsT’TtoVPVspend time…

3a important [CP for [TP parents to spend…]]:for 是补语化成分 C,引导不定式小句

开放点:3d/3f 的 for 介于介词与 C 之间——它后接名词短语,但名词后又跟了 to be done 不定式。教材 hints 提示这类「for + NP + to do」结构在历史上有「for 是介词、NP 是其宾语、to do 是补语」与「for 是 C、NP 是不定式小句主语」两种分析。解 A 取介词说(for a peace agreement 是介词短语);解 B 取 C 说(for 引导不定式小句,a peace agreement 是小句主语)。在现代 MP 里解 B 更通行。
32.2 Workbook Exercise 2.2 逐题精解

【英文原题】Exercise 2.2

Use the labelled bracketing technique to assign each word in each of the sentences below to a grammatical category which represents how it is being used in the position in which it occurs. Give reasons, highlight any analytic problems, and comment on interesting properties of the relevant words.

(译文:用 labelled bracketing 标注法,把下列每句中的每个词标上它在该位置实际充当的范畴;给出理由,指出分析难点,并评论相关词的有趣性质。)

教材 model answer 给了句 1 的标注:[PRN He] [T was] [V feeling] [A disappointed] [P at] [ADV only] [V obtaining] [A average] [N grades] [P in] [D the] [N morphology] [N exercises]。它特别讨论了 average 与 morphology 的名/形两可:average 可被 relatively 修饰(作形容词),也可作名词(the average of…);morphology exercises 里第一个名词 morphology 作修饰语(modifier),不能加复数。下面给出全部 8 句的完整标注。

句 1 He was feeling disappointed at only obtaining average grades in the morphology exercises

[PRN He] [T was] [V feeling] [A disappointed] [P at] [ADV only] [V obtaining] [A average] [N grades] [P in] [D the] [N morphology] [N exercises]

理由与难点:He=主格代词(DP);was=进行体助动词 T;feeling=现在分词作动词;disappointed=形容词作补语;at=介词;only=副词修饰 obtaining;obtaining=动名词/动词;average 在此被 relatively 类副词修饰,是形容词;grades=名词宾语;in=介词;the=限定词;morphology 是名词作修饰语(modifier),不数;exercises=中心名词。

TPDPHeT’TwasVPVfeelingAPAdisappointedPPPatVPADVonlyVobtainingNPAaverageNgrades

句 1 结构树:He / was-T / feeling-V / disappointed-A / at-P / obtaining-V / average-A grades-N

句 2 Student counsellors know that money troubles can cause considerable stress

[A/N Student] [N counsellors] [V know] [C that] [N money] [N troubles] [T can] [V cause] [A considerable] [N stress]

理由与难点:Student 是名词作修饰语(修饰 counsellors,不数);counsellors=复数名词主语;know=限定动词;that=补语化成分 C;money 名词作修饰语;troubles=名词主语;can=情态助动词 T;cause=动词;considerable=形容词;stress=名词宾语。注意 Student/money 都是名词作定语(noun-noun compound),不是形容词。

句 3 Opposition politicians are pressing for election debates to receive better television coverage

[N Opposition] [N politicians] [T are] [V pressing] [P for] [N election] [N debates] [T to] [V receive] [A better] [N television] [N coverage]

理由与难点:Opposition 名词作修饰语;politicians 主语;are=进行体助动词;pressing 动词;for 介词(后接名词短语 election debates);election 名词作修饰语;debates 名词;to=不定式标记 T;receive 动词;better 形容词比较级;television 名词作修饰语;coverage 名词中心语。难点:for 后接名词短语 election debates,不是不定式小句(debates 是 for 的宾语,to receive… 是目的补足),故 for 判介词。

句 4 Seasoned press commentators doubt if the workers will ever fully accept that substantial pay rises lead to runaway inflation

[A Seasoned] [N press] [N commentators] [V doubt] [C if] [D the] [N workers] [T will] [ADV ever] [ADV fully] [V accept] [C that] [A substantial] [N pay] [N rises] [V lead] [P to] [A runaway] [N inflation]

理由与难点:Seasoned=形容词(修饰 commentators);press 名词作修饰语;commentators 主语;doubt 限定动词;if=疑问补语化成分 C(引导限定疑问小句);the 限定词;workers 名词;will 情态 T;ever/fully 副词;accept 动词;that=陈述补语化成分 C;substantial 形容词;pay 名词作修饰语;rises 名词主语;lead 动词;to 介词;runaway 形容词;inflation 名词。一句里出现两个不同的 C:if(疑问)与 that(陈述),这是有趣点。

句 5 Students often complain to their high school teachers that the state education system promotes universal mediocrity

[N Students] [ADV often] [V complain] [P to] [D their] [A high] [N school] [N teachers] [C that] [D the] [N state] [N education] [N system] [V promotes] [A universal] [N mediocrity]

理由与难点:Students 主语;often 频度副词;complain 动词;to 介词;their 物主限定词;high 形容词;school 名词作修饰语;teachers 介词宾语;that=补语化成分 C;the 限定词;state/education 名词作修饰语;system 主语;promotes 动词;universal 形容词;mediocrity 名词宾语。注意 their 是 D(限定词),不是独立代词。

句 6 Some scientists believe that climatic changes result from ozone depletion due to excessive carbon dioxide emission

[Q Some] [N scientists] [V believe] [C that] [A climatic] [N changes] [V result] [P from] [N ozone] [N depletion] [P due] [P to] [A excessive] [N carbon] [N dioxide] [N emission]

理由与难点:Some=量化词 Q(修饰 scientists);scientists 主语;believe 动词;that=C;climatic 形容词;changes 名词主语;result 动词(不及物);from 介词;ozone 名词作修饰语;depletion 名词宾语;due to=复合介词短语(due 形容词+to 介词);excessive 形容词;carbon dioxide 名词作修饰语;emission 名词中心语。

句 7 Linguists have long suspected that peer group pressure shapes linguistic behaviour patterns in very young children

[N Linguists] [T have] [ADV long] [V suspected] [C that] [N peer] [N group] [N pressure] [V shapes] [A linguistic] [N behaviour] [N patterns] [P in] [ADV very] [A young] [N children]

理由与难点:Linguists 主语;have=完成体助动词 T;long=副词(长久以来);suspected 过去分词动词;that=C;peer/group 名词作修饰语;pressure 主语;shapes 动词(第三人称单数);linguistic 形容词;behaviour 名词作修饰语;patterns 宾语;in 介词;very 副词强化 young;young 形容词;children 名词。

句 8 You don’t seem to be too worried about the possibility that many of the shareholders may now vote against your revised takeover bid

[PRN You] [T don’t] [V seem] [T to] [V be] [ADV too] [A worried] [P about] [D the] [N possibility] [C that] [Q many] [P of] [D the] [N shareholders] [T may] [ADV now] [V vote] [P against] [D your] [A revised] [N takeover] [N bid]

理由与难点:You=主格代词;don’t=助动词 do+not(T,否定标记);seem 动词;to=不定式 T;be 动词;too 副词;worried 形容词;about 介词;possibility 名词;that=补语化成分 C(引导同位小句说明 possibility);many=量化词;of 介词;the 限定词;shareholders 名词;may=情态 T;now 副词;vote 动词;against 介词;your 物主限定词;revised 形容词;takeover 名词作修饰语;bid 名词中心语。一句里助动词系统最复杂(don’t…seem to be…may vote),是练 T/动词区分的好例子。

2.2.1 八句标注的共性规律

把八句放在一起看,会发现几条反复出现的规律,也是阅卷人最想看到的「评论」:

  • 名词作修饰语一律用单数、标 N:morphology exercises、student counsellors、money troubles、election debates、press commentators、pay rises、state education system、carbon dioxide emission、peer group pressure、behaviour patterns、takeover bid——前一个名词是修饰语,不加复数 -s。这是英语名名复合词的硬规则。
  • that/if 必须标 C,不能漏:句 2、4、5、6、7、8 里都出现了 that,句 4 还同时有 if。把 that 当「连词」忽略不标 C,是本题最常见丢分。
  • 物主代词 my/your/our/their 标 D:句 5 their、句 8 your 是限定词,不是独立代词。
  • 助动词系统标 T:was/are/have/don’t/can/will/may/to 都是 T;真正的主动词(feeling/know/press/doubt/complain/believe/suspected/seem/accept/vote)标 V。
  • 副词 -ly 与频度副词:only/often/long/ever/fully/now/too 都标 ADV;very 修饰形容词/副词时也是 ADV。

教材 model answer 还提醒一个开放点:像 average、morphology、climatic 这类词,单独看既可名可形,但在本句位置由分布决定词性——average 后接名词 grades 且可被 relatively 修饰时是形容词;morphology 直接修饰 exercises、不能加复数时是名词作修饰语。这正应了 Radford 的核心主张:范畴不是词的固有标签,而是它在该句位置上的功能。

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