第 6 章 Wh-movement(wh 移位)
做题前先背熟下列 8 条机制。它们是第 6 章所有习题的「弹药」。
机制 1:wh 短语移到 spec-CP
root wh 问句中,wh 短语(who/what/which…)从补语位置移到 CP 的 specifier 位(spec-CP);同时 C 的 [TNS] 特征触发助动词 T-to-C。两个移位并行:wh 短语移 spec-CP,助动词移 head C。
Who was she dating?:wh 短语 Who 移 spec-CP,助动词 was 移 head C(两步箭头)
机制 2:Movement = copy + deletion(拷贝加删除)
wh 移位在原位留下一个拷贝(trace 的现代写法)。证据:①wanna-contraction——You don’t want to win the game? 中 want 与 to 可缩约为 wanna,但 *Who don’t you wanna win? 不合法,因为 who 在 want 与 to 之间留下了一个显性拷贝阻挡缩约;②preposition copying(In what enormity is Marcius poor in?);③wh-copying(Which many of us thought wasn’t on the books);④island 效应中 overt 拼写拷贝(who[m])。
机制 3:C 的 [WH, EPP] 特征
wh 从句的 C 携带 [WH] 与 [EPP] 两个特征:[WH] 要求从句含一个 wh 表达式;[EPP] 要求 C 投射一个 specifier。两者共同触发 wh 短语移 spec-CP。root 问句的 C 还带 [TNS] 词缀特征,触发 T-to-C。
| 从句类型 | C 的特征 | 是否 T-to-C | 例 |
|---|---|---|---|
| root wh 问句 | [TNS, WH, EPP] | 是 | What can you sing? |
| root yes-no 问句 | [TNS, WH, EPP](空 whether 算子) | 是 | Is it raining? |
| embedded wh 问句 | [WH, EPP](无 TNS) | 否 | I wonder where you are going |
| wh 感叹句 | [WH, EPP](无 TNS,EXCL-FORCE) | 否 | What fun we had! |
| 关系子句 | [WH, EPP](空补语标记) | 否 | the man [who they arrested] |
| that-关系子句 | that 补语标记 + 空 wh 拷贝 | 否 | the man [that they arrested] |
表 6-1 C 的特征组合
机制 4:ACP(Attract Closest Principle,吸引最近原则)
C 吸引最近的带 wh 特征的成分移 spec-CP。多重 wh 问句中只有最近的 wh 短语被前置:I wonder [who he thinks has done what]——who 比 what 更靠近 C,故 who 前置,what 留在原位。这解释了 *I wonder [what who he thinks has done] 不合法。
多重 wh:who 比 what 更靠近 C,ACP 吸引 who 前置
机制 5:Remerger Constraint 与 Constituent Structure Constraint
①Remerger Constraint:同一 head 不能把已 merge 过的成分再 merge 一次。所以 C 不能吸引 TP 作 spec-CP(TP 已是 C 的 complement),只能吸引 T(助动词)作 head。②Constituent Structure Constraint:只有最小投射(head)能占 head 位;只有最大投射(XP)能占 specifier/complement 位。所以 [T have] 移 head C,[wh 短语 XP] 移 spec-CP。
机制 6:wh 主语问句(Pesetsky & Torrego)
Who called the police? 这类 wh 主语问句不触发 T-to-C 与 do-support。Pesetsky & Torrego:wh 主语 who 本身携带 tense 特征(被 T 的时态拷贝赋予),它从 spec-TP 移到 spec-CP 时,同时满足 C 的 [WH, EPP, TNS] 三个特征,一个移位就够了,不需要再 T-to-C。证据:Who on earth called? / Who the hell called? 这些短语不能留在原位(*She is going out with who on earth?),证明 wh 主语必须移 spec-CP。
Who called the police?:wh 主语一步从 spec-TP 移 spec-CP,同时满足 [WH,EPP,TNS]
机制 7:Pied-piping(介词跟随)
正式英语中,wh 代词作介词补语时,整个 PP 一起移 spec-CP(To whom was he referring?);非正式英语只移 wh 代词,介词 stranded(Who was he referring to?)。Chomsky 的 Convergence Principle:C 吸引最小的含 wh 词的成分,使推导收敛;若 Stranding Constraint 禁止介词滞留,则整个 PP 被 pied-pipe。
To whom was he referring?:整个 PP pied-pipe 到 spec-CP
机制 8:关系子句与 RPSC / MFCF
①RPSC(Relative Pronoun Spellout Condition):关系代词在限定关系子句 spec-CP 可选择空拼写(故 the man [who/that/∅ they arrested] 都合法);在非限定(不定式)关系子句必须空拼写。②MFCF(Multiply Filled COMP Filter):任何 CP 不能同时含 overt 补语标记(that/if/for)与 overt specifier,故 *the man [who that they arrested] 不合法。
Is it raining?:yes-no 问句,spec-CP 是空 whether 算子,C 含 [TNS,WH,EPP]
What fun we had!:wh 感叹句,C 无 [TNS],have 留在 T 不倒装
做题常备约束清单
| 约束 | 内容 | 违反后果 |
|---|---|---|
| ACP | C 吸引最近 wh 成分 | *多重 wh 乱序前置 |
| Remerger | 同一 head 不重复 merge | *TP 作 spec-CP |
| Constituent Structure | head 占 head 位,XP 占 spec/comp | *最小投射作 spec |
| LBC 左分支条件 | 名词/形容词/副词的最左成分不能抽出 | *Whose 单独前置 |
| CED 提取域条件 | 只补语可提取,spec/附加语不可 | *从 NP spec 抽出 |
| MFCF | CP 不能同时有 overt C 与 overt spec | *who that |
| RPSC | 关系代词限定句可选空写,非限定句必空写 | *不定式句 overt who |
| wh-island | wh 从句是岛,不能从中抽取 | *who [what …] |
表 6-2 第 6 章常考约束
pied-piping vs stranding 语体对照
| 结构 | 正式(pied-piping) | 非正式(stranding) |
|---|---|---|
| 介词+wh | To whom were you talking? | Who were you talking to? |
| 关系子句 | the man to whom I spoke | the man who I spoke to |
| whom 宾格 | Whom did you see? | Who did you see? |
| 分裂句 | It is to whom I spoke | It is who I spoke to |
| 语体标记 | 书面/正式演讲 | 口语/日常 |
表 6-3 pied-piping 与 stranding
题干(逐字抄录):Discuss the derivation of the wh-clauses below, drawing tree diagrams to show their superficial structure and saying why they are grammatical or ungrammatical in standard varieties of English:
In addition, comment on relevant aspects of the interrogative/exclamative Shakespearean sentences in (11) below, the African American English interrogatives in (12) (from Green 1998, pp. 98–9) and the bracketed complement clauses in Belfast English (adapted from Henry 1995) in (13) and (14):
Helpful hints(原书提示,编者译述)
逐题解答(1a–10e)
题 1a Which film have you seen? —— 合法(原书 model answer)
思路:QP which film 与 seen 合成 VP seen which film;与助动词 have 合成 T-bar have seen…;与 you 合成 TP。C 含 [TNS, WH, EPP]。[TNS] 吸引 have 到 head C(Remerger Constraint 禁止吸引 TP);[WH, EPP] 吸引最近的带 wh 特征的最大投射 QP which film 到 spec-CP。
题 1a Which film have you seen?:QP 移 spec-CP,have 移 head C
题 1b *Which have you seen film? —— 不合法
思路:只把 wh 限定词 which 抽出,留下 NP film。违反 Convergence Principle——C 要吸引最小的含 wh 词的最大投射;which 只是 QP 的 head,不能单独移 spec-CP(最小投射不能占 spec)。且 LBC:which 是 NP 的左分支成分,不能抽出。
题 2a Dare anyone say anything? —— 合法
思路:dare 是情态动词,在 T 生成;anyone/anything 是负极性词,由 dare(疑问/否定语境)许可。root 问句 T-to-C,dare 提升到 C。
题 2b Who interrupted him? —— 合法(wh 主语问句)
思路:wh 主语 who 从 spec-TP 移 spec-CP,同时满足 C 的 [TNS, WH, EPP](Pesetsky-Torrego),不触发 T-to-C,动词 interrupted 在 PF 层 Affix Hopping。
题 3a/b Who/Whom were you talking to? / To whom… —— 合法(变体)
思路:3a 非正式,whom(正式宾格)常被 who 替代,介词 to stranded 在句末;3b 正式,整个 PP to whom pied-pipe。两种都合法,语体不同。
题 4a–d Who have they spoken to? —— cliticisation 变体
思路:4a 正式,who 主格/宾格通用,介词 to 滞留。4b Who’ve = who+have 缩约——have cliticise 到 who(who 以元音结尾,c-command have,中间无阻隔)。4c ?To who’ve 是方言/非正式;4d *To who’ve 不合法,因为 pied-pipe 的 PP to whom 中whom 不能 cliticise have(PP 是最大投射,who 在 PP 内部,不 c-command have)。
题 5a/b Which picture of you… —— cliticisation 对照
思路:5a Which picture of you have they published? 合法。5b *Which picture of you’ve they published? 不合法——you 在 NP 内部(of you),不 c-command have,不能 cliticise。
题 6a–d What excuse… —— split 现象
思路:6a What excuse has he given? 合法——整个 QP what excuse 移 spec-CP。6b *What has he given excuse? / 6d 同——只移 what,留下 excuse,违反 Convergence/LBC。6c *What excuse he has given? ——wh 短语移了但助动词 has 没倒装(root 问句缺 T-to-C)。
题 7a–d In whose mother… —— pied-piping 嵌套
思路:7a In whose mother has he confided? 合法——整个 PP in whose mother 移 spec-CP。7b Whose mother has he confided in? 合法——DP whose mother 移 spec-CP,介词 in 滞留。7c *Whose has he confided in mother? ——只抽 whose(LBC 违反)。7d *In whose has he confided mother? ——抽 whose 留 mother,同样 LBC。
题 8a–d What courage he has shown! —— wh 感叹句
思路:8a What courage he has shown! 合法——wh 感叹句,C 带 [WH,EPP] 但无 [TNS],故 wh 短语 What courage 移 spec-CP,助动词 has 不提升(留在 T 原位)。8b/8d *What he has shown courage! ——拆分错误。8c *What courage has he shown! ——感叹句误加了 T-to-C(has 提升),但感叹句 C 无 [TNS],不应倒装。
题 9a/b How proud of him you must be! —— 感叹句 pied-piping
思路:9a How proud of him you must be! 合法——AP how proud of him 整个移 spec-CP,must 不提升(感叹句无 TNS)。9b How proud you must be of him! 也合法——AP how proud 移 spec-CP,PP of him 滞留(介词/补语可后置)。
题 10a–e The leader of which party… —— 复杂 pied-piping
思路:10a The leader of which party has resigned? 合法——整个 DP 移 spec-CP。10b *Leader of which party has he resigned? ——缺冠词 the,且 he 与 the leader 重复。10c ?Of which party has the leader resigned? 方言/边缘——PP of which party 移 spec-CP。10d ?Which party has the leader of resigned? 边缘——DP which party 移,of 滞留。10e *Which has the leader of party resigned? ——拆分错误(LBC)。
题 11–14:方言与古旧 wh 结构
| 题 | 句 | 解读 |
|---|---|---|
| 11a | What sayst thou? | 古英语 V-to-C:实义动词 say 提升到 C(强 Tns),现代英语不合法 |
| 11b | What dost thou say? | 古英语 do-support + wh 移位 |
| 11c | What didst not like? | 古英语 do-support 否定,空 pro 主语 |
| 11d | What visions have I seen! | 古英语 wh 感叹句,have 助动词提升 |
| 12a | What I’m gon’ do? | 非裔美国英语:wh 问句不倒装(wh-in-situ 风格),be 动词不提升 |
| 12b | How she’s doing? | 同 12a:wh 短语前置但助动词不倒装(与标准英语 How is she doing? 对照) |
| 13a | they wondered [which one that he chose] | 贝尔法斯特英语:embedded wh 从句可同时有 wh 短语前置与补语标记 that(that 不触发 MFCF) |
| 13b | they wondered [which one did he choose] | 贝尔法斯特英语:embedded wh 从句可 T-to-C 倒装 |
| 13c | *they wondered [which one that did he choose] | MFCF:不能同时 wh 前置 + that + 倒装 |
| 14a | they wondered [if/whether/(that) we had gone] | 贝尔法斯特英语:if/whether/that 都可作补语标记 |
| 14b | *they wondered [if/whether had we gone] | if/whether 从句不能倒装(与 13b 对照) |
| 14c | they wondered [had we gone] | 贝尔法斯特英语:inverted 补语从句(空 C + T-to-C) |
表 6-3 方言/古旧 wh 句解读
题干(逐字抄录):Discuss the derivation of the bracketed restrictive relative clauses in the sentences below, drawing tree diagrams to show their superficial structure and saying why they are grammatical or ungrammatical in standard varieties of English:
Helpful hints(原书提示,编者译述)
逐题解答
题 1a He is someone [who you can talk to] —— 合法(原书 model answer)
思路:to + who → PP to who;与 talk 合成 VP talk to who;与 can 合成 T-bar can talk to who;与 you 合成 TP。空补语标记(that 的空 counterpart)[WH,EPP]。[WH] 吸引最近带 wh 特征的最大投射PRN who 到 spec-CP。
题 1a someone [who you can talk to]:who 移 spec-CP,介词 to 滞留
题 1b He is someone [you can talk to] —— 合法(关系代词空拼写)
思路:同 1a,但 RPSC 允许限定关系子句中 spec-CP 的关系代词 who 空拼写(PF 层不发音),表面看就是 [you can talk to],无 overt 关系代词。
题 1c He is someone [to whom you can talk] —— 合法(pied-piping)
思路:正式英语,整个 PP to whom pied-pipe 到 spec-CP。
题 1d *He is someone [to you can talk] —— 不合法
思路:to 滞留但 who/whom 丢了——既没 pied-pipe 也没 stranding,介词 to 成了无宾语的孤儿。
题 2a *[who that you can talk to] —— 不合法(MFCF)
思路:CP 同时有 overt specifier who 与 overt 补语标记 that,违反 MFCF。
题 2a *who that you can talk to:spec-CP(who) 与 head C(that) 双重填充,违反 MFCF
题 2b [that you can talk to] —— 合法
思路:that 是补语标记,spec-CP 的关系代词空拼写。
题 2c/d *[to whom that…] / *[to that…] —— 不合法
思路:2c PP to whom + that 双重填充(MFCF);2d to 后接 that 不是 wh 代词。
题 3a–d people [who/that/∅ have got a degree] —— 关系代词主语
思路:3a who 作关系子句主语,移 spec-CP;3b who’ve = who+have cliticisation(who 元音结尾);3c that 补语标记 + 空 wh 拷贝;3d *[have got a degree] 既无 overt 关系代词也无 that,且关系子句主语位置空——若按 Pesetsky-Torrego,关系代词作主语应在 spec-CP,但这里既不发 who 也不发 that,违反 RPSC(限定关系子句即使空写也需有 wh 拷贝,不能裸奔)。
题 4a–d the way [how/∅/that he behaved] —— how 关系子句
思路:how 是方式副词/PRN。4a *[how he behaved] 不合法——the way 本身已是方式,how 与 the way 重复;4b [he behaved] 合法(空 wh 拷贝);4c *[that how] MFCF;4d [that he behaved] 合法(that 补语标记)。
题 5a–d someone [who to love me] —— 不定式关系子句
思路:5a *[who to love me] 不合法——不定式(非限定)关系子句中 RPSC 要求关系代词必须空拼写,不能 overt who;5b [to love me] 合法(空 wh 拷贝,PRO 主语);5c *[who to love] 不合法(同 5a,overt who 违 RPSC);5d [to love] 合法(空 wh 拷贝作 love 宾语)。
题 6a–f a place [in which/∅ to stay] —— 不定式 pied-piping
思路:6a [in which to stay] 合法——正式,PP in which pied-pipe,which 空写(不定式必空写);6b *[in to stay] 介词无宾语;6c *[which to stay in] 不合法(不定式 overt which 违 RPSC);6d [to stay in] 合法——介词 in 滞留,空 wh 拷贝;6e *[where to stay] 不合法——where 是关系副词,在不定式关系子句中不能 overt(RPSC);6f [to stay] 合法——空 wh 拷贝。
题 7a–f a place [for her to stay] —— for-to 不定式关系子句
思路:7d [for her to stay in] 合法——for 补语标记,her 是 for 的宾语/不定式主语,介词 in 滞留,空 wh 拷贝;7f [for her to stay] 合法;7a/7b/7c/7e 都不合法——不定式 overt which/where 违 RPSC,或介词无宾语。
题 8a–d no way [how/∅ to behave] —— 方式
思路:同题 4,how 与 no way 语义重复;8b [to behave]、8d [for you to behave] 合法;8a *[how to behave]、8c *[how for you to behave] 不合法(how 重复)。

