S308 · 第 6 章 Wh-movement(wh 移位)

MP 刷题 · Radford Minimalist Syntax
Syntax · S308

第 6 章 Wh-movement(wh 移位)

16.0 本章做题必备:wh 移位 8 条机制

做题前先背熟下列 8 条机制。它们是第 6 章所有习题的「弹药」。

机制 1:wh 短语移到 spec-CP

root wh 问句中,wh 短语(who/what/which…)从补语位置移到 CP 的 specifier 位(spec-CP);同时 C 的 [TNS] 特征触发助动词 T-to-C。两个移位并行:wh 短语移 spec-CP,助动词移 head C。

CPPRNWhoC”CwasTPPRNsheT”TwasVPVdatingPRNwho

Who was she dating?:wh 短语 Who 移 spec-CP,助动词 was 移 head C(两步箭头)

机制 2:Movement = copy + deletion(拷贝加删除)

wh 移位在原位留下一个拷贝(trace 的现代写法)。证据:①wanna-contraction——You don’t want to win the game? 中 want 与 to 可缩约为 wanna,但 *Who don’t you wanna win? 不合法,因为 who 在 want 与 to 之间留下了一个显性拷贝阻挡缩约;②preposition copying(In what enormity is Marcius poor in?);③wh-copying(Which many of us thought wasn’t on the books);④island 效应中 overt 拼写拷贝(who[m])。

机制 3:C 的 [WH, EPP] 特征

wh 从句的 C 携带 [WH] 与 [EPP] 两个特征:[WH] 要求从句含一个 wh 表达式;[EPP] 要求 C 投射一个 specifier。两者共同触发 wh 短语移 spec-CP。root 问句的 C 还带 [TNS] 词缀特征,触发 T-to-C。

从句类型 C 的特征 是否 T-to-C 例
root wh 问句 [TNS, WH, EPP] 是 What can you sing?
root yes-no 问句 [TNS, WH, EPP](空 whether 算子) 是 Is it raining?
embedded wh 问句 [WH, EPP](无 TNS) 否 I wonder where you are going
wh 感叹句 [WH, EPP](无 TNS,EXCL-FORCE) 否 What fun we had!
关系子句 [WH, EPP](空补语标记) 否 the man [who they arrested]
that-关系子句 that 补语标记 + 空 wh 拷贝 否 the man [that they arrested]

表 6-1 C 的特征组合

机制 4:ACP(Attract Closest Principle,吸引最近原则)

C 吸引最近的带 wh 特征的成分移 spec-CP。多重 wh 问句中只有最近的 wh 短语被前置:I wonder [who he thinks has done what]——who 比 what 更靠近 C,故 who 前置,what 留在原位。这解释了 *I wonder [what who he thinks has done] 不合法。

C”CøTPPRNheT”TmightVPVthinkCPCøTPPRNwhoT”ThasVPVdonePRNwhat

多重 wh:who 比 what 更靠近 C,ACP 吸引 who 前置

机制 5:Remerger Constraint 与 Constituent Structure Constraint

①Remerger Constraint:同一 head 不能把已 merge 过的成分再 merge 一次。所以 C 不能吸引 TP 作 spec-CP(TP 已是 C 的 complement),只能吸引 T(助动词)作 head。②Constituent Structure Constraint:只有最小投射(head)能占 head 位;只有最大投射(XP)能占 specifier/complement 位。所以 [T have] 移 head C,[wh 短语 XP] 移 spec-CP。

机制 6:wh 主语问句(Pesetsky & Torrego)

Who called the police? 这类 wh 主语问句不触发 T-to-C 与 do-support。Pesetsky & Torrego:wh 主语 who 本身携带 tense 特征(被 T 的时态拷贝赋予),它从 spec-TP 移到 spec-CP 时,同时满足 C 的 [WH, EPP, TNS] 三个特征,一个移位就够了,不需要再 T-to-C。证据:Who on earth called? / Who the hell called? 这些短语不能留在原位(*She is going out with who on earth?),证明 wh 主语必须移 spec-CP。

CPPRNWhoC”CøTPPRNWhoT”TTnsVPVcallPRNthe police

Who called the police?:wh 主语一步从 spec-TP 移 spec-CP,同时满足 [WH,EPP,TNS]

机制 7:Pied-piping(介词跟随)

正式英语中,wh 代词作介词补语时,整个 PP 一起移 spec-CP(To whom was he referring?);非正式英语只移 wh 代词,介词 stranded(Who was he referring to?)。Chomsky 的 Convergence Principle:C 吸引最小的含 wh 词的成分,使推导收敛;若 Stranding Constraint 禁止介词滞留,则整个 PP 被 pied-pipe。

CPPPPtoPRNwhomC”CøTPPRNheT”TwasVPVreferringPPPtoPRNwhom

To whom was he referring?:整个 PP pied-pipe 到 spec-CP

机制 8:关系子句与 RPSC / MFCF

①RPSC(Relative Pronoun Spellout Condition):关系代词在限定关系子句 spec-CP 可选择空拼写(故 the man [who/that/∅ they arrested] 都合法);在非限定(不定式)关系子句必须空拼写。②MFCF(Multiply Filled COMP Filter):任何 CP 不能同时含 overt 补语标记(that/if/for)与 overt specifier,故 *the man [who that they arrested] 不合法。

CPADVwhetherC”CIs+øTPPRNitT”TisVPVraining

Is it raining?:yes-no 问句,spec-CP 是空 whether 算子,C 含 [TNS,WH,EPP]

CPQPQwhatNfunC”CøTPPRNweT”ThaveVPVhaveQPQwhatNfun

What fun we had!:wh 感叹句,C 无 [TNS],have 留在 T 不倒装

做题常备约束清单

约束 内容 违反后果
ACP C 吸引最近 wh 成分 *多重 wh 乱序前置
Remerger 同一 head 不重复 merge *TP 作 spec-CP
Constituent Structure head 占 head 位,XP 占 spec/comp *最小投射作 spec
LBC 左分支条件 名词/形容词/副词的最左成分不能抽出 *Whose 单独前置
CED 提取域条件 只补语可提取,spec/附加语不可 *从 NP spec 抽出
MFCF CP 不能同时有 overt C 与 overt spec *who that
RPSC 关系代词限定句可选空写,非限定句必空写 *不定式句 overt who
wh-island wh 从句是岛,不能从中抽取 *who [what …]

表 6-2 第 6 章常考约束

pied-piping vs stranding 语体对照

结构 正式(pied-piping) 非正式(stranding)
介词+wh To whom were you talking? Who were you talking to?
关系子句 the man to whom I spoke the man who I spoke to
whom 宾格 Whom did you see? Who did you see?
分裂句 It is to whom I spoke It is who I spoke to
语体标记 书面/正式演讲 口语/日常

表 6-3 pied-piping 与 stranding

2Exercise 6.1(原书 p.236–238)

题干(逐字抄录):Discuss the derivation of the wh-clauses below, drawing tree diagrams to show their superficial structure and saying why they are grammatical or ungrammatical in standard varieties of English:

1a Which film have you seen?
1b *Which have you seen film?
2a Dare anyone say anything?
2b Who interrupted him?
3a Who/Whom were you talking to?
3b To whom/To who were you talking?
4a Who have they spoken to?
4b Who’ve they spoken to?
4c ?To who’ve they spoken?
4d *To who’ve they spoken?
5a Which picture of you have they published?
5b *Which picture of you’ve they published?
6a What excuse has he given?
6b *What has he given excuse?
6c *What excuse he has given?
6d *What has he given excuse?
7a In whose mother has he confided?
7b Whose mother has he confided in?
7c *Whose has he confided in mother?
7d *In whose has he confided mother?
8a What courage he has shown!
8b *What he has shown courage!
8c *What courage has he shown!
8d *What he has shown courage!
9a How proud of him you must be!
9b How proud you must be of him!
10a The leader of which party has resigned?
10b *Leader of which party has he resigned?
10c ?Of which party has the leader resigned?
10d ?Which party has the leader of resigned?
10e *Which has the leader of party resigned?

In addition, comment on relevant aspects of the interrogative/exclamative Shakespearean sentences in (11) below, the African American English interrogatives in (12) (from Green 1998, pp. 98–9) and the bracketed complement clauses in Belfast English (adapted from Henry 1995) in (13) and (14):

11a What sayst thou? (Olivia, Twelfth Night, III.iv)
11b What dost thou say? (Othello, Othello, III.iii)
11c What didst not like? (Othello, Othello, III.iii)
11d What visions have I seen! (Titania, Midsummer Night’s Dream, V.i)
12a What I’m gon’ do? (= ‘What am I going to do?’)
12b How she’s doing? (= ‘How is she doing?’)
13a They wondered [which one that he chose]
13b They wondered [which one did he choose]
13c *They wondered [which one that did he choose]
14a They wondered [if/whether/(that) we had gone]
14b *They wondered [if/whether had we gone]
14c They wondered [had we gone]

Helpful hints(原书提示,编者译述)

2a:假定 dare/anyone/anything 是极性词(polarity items),dare 在 T 生成。3–4:前缀 ? 表示该用法在标准语中是非正式/方言变体(whom 是正式宾格;pied-piping 正式;宾格+介词滞留较非正式)。4–5:have cliticisation 到另一个词 W——W 是以元音/双元音结尾的代词,W 不对称 c-command have,且 W 与 have 之间无 overt/null 成分 c-command have。6–10:用 convergence 与 feature-copying 解释 pied-piping。14:if 与 whether 在贝尔法斯特英语中都是补语标记(标准英语只有 if 是)。

逐题解答(1a–10e)

题 1a Which film have you seen? —— 合法(原书 model answer)

思路:QP which film 与 seen 合成 VP seen which film;与助动词 have 合成 T-bar have seen…;与 you 合成 TP。C 含 [TNS, WH, EPP]。[TNS] 吸引 have 到 head C(Remerger Constraint 禁止吸引 TP);[WH, EPP] 吸引最近的带 wh 特征的最大投射 QP which film 到 spec-CP。

CPQPQwhichNfilmC”Chave+øTPPRNyouT”ThaveVPVseenQPQwhichNfilm

题 1a Which film have you seen?:QP 移 spec-CP,have 移 head C

答案:合法。[TNS]→have 到 C;[WH,EPP]→QP which film 到 spec-CP。

题 1b *Which have you seen film? —— 不合法

思路:只把 wh 限定词 which 抽出,留下 NP film。违反 Convergence Principle——C 要吸引最小的含 wh 词的最大投射;which 只是 QP 的 head,不能单独移 spec-CP(最小投射不能占 spec)。且 LBC:which 是 NP 的左分支成分,不能抽出。

错因修法:整个 QP which film 一起移(题 1a)。

题 2a Dare anyone say anything? —— 合法

思路:dare 是情态动词,在 T 生成;anyone/anything 是负极性词,由 dare(疑问/否定语境)许可。root 问句 T-to-C,dare 提升到 C。

答案:合法。dare 情态提升;极性词 anyone/anything 由疑问 dare 许可。

题 2b Who interrupted him? —— 合法(wh 主语问句)

思路:wh 主语 who 从 spec-TP 移 spec-CP,同时满足 C 的 [TNS, WH, EPP](Pesetsky-Torrego),不触发 T-to-C,动词 interrupted 在 PF 层 Affix Hopping。

答案:合法。wh 主语一步移 spec-CP。

题 3a/b Who/Whom were you talking to? / To whom… —— 合法(变体)

思路:3a 非正式,whom(正式宾格)常被 who 替代,介词 to stranded 在句末;3b 正式,整个 PP to whom pied-pipe。两种都合法,语体不同。

答案:3a 非正式(介词滞留);3b 正式(pied-piping)。To who 是非正式变体。

题 4a–d Who have they spoken to? —— cliticisation 变体

思路:4a 正式,who 主格/宾格通用,介词 to 滞留。4b Who’ve = who+have 缩约——have cliticise 到 who(who 以元音结尾,c-command have,中间无阻隔)。4c ?To who’ve 是方言/非正式;4d *To who’ve 不合法,因为 pied-pipe 的 PP to whom 中whom 不能 cliticise have(PP 是最大投射,who 在 PP 内部,不 c-command have)。

答案:4a、4b 合法;4c 方言边缘;4d 不合法(pied-piped PP 内的 whom 不能 cliticise have)。

题 5a/b Which picture of you… —— cliticisation 对照

思路:5a Which picture of you have they published? 合法。5b *Which picture of you’ve they published? 不合法——you 在 NP 内部(of you),不 c-command have,不能 cliticise。

错因修法:5b 把 you’ve 拆开 → Which picture of you have they published?

题 6a–d What excuse… —— split 现象

思路:6a What excuse has he given? 合法——整个 QP what excuse 移 spec-CP。6b *What has he given excuse? / 6d 同——只移 what,留下 excuse,违反 Convergence/LBC。6c *What excuse he has given? ——wh 短语移了但助动词 has 没倒装(root 问句缺 T-to-C)。

答案:6a 合法;6b/6d 拆分错误;6c 缺 T-to-C。

题 7a–d In whose mother… —— pied-piping 嵌套

思路:7a In whose mother has he confided? 合法——整个 PP in whose mother 移 spec-CP。7b Whose mother has he confided in? 合法——DP whose mother 移 spec-CP,介词 in 滞留。7c *Whose has he confided in mother? ——只抽 whose(LBC 违反)。7d *In whose has he confided mother? ——抽 whose 留 mother,同样 LBC。

答案:7a、7b 合法;7c、7d 违反 LBC。

题 8a–d What courage he has shown! —— wh 感叹句

思路:8a What courage he has shown! 合法——wh 感叹句,C 带 [WH,EPP] 但无 [TNS],故 wh 短语 What courage 移 spec-CP,助动词 has 不提升(留在 T 原位)。8b/8d *What he has shown courage! ——拆分错误。8c *What courage has he shown! ——感叹句误加了 T-to-C(has 提升),但感叹句 C 无 [TNS],不应倒装。

答案:8a 合法;8b/8d 拆分错误;8c 感叹句误倒装。

题 9a/b How proud of him you must be! —— 感叹句 pied-piping

思路:9a How proud of him you must be! 合法——AP how proud of him 整个移 spec-CP,must 不提升(感叹句无 TNS)。9b How proud you must be of him! 也合法——AP how proud 移 spec-CP,PP of him 滞留(介词/补语可后置)。

答案:9a、9b 都合法(pied-piping 范围不同)。

题 10a–e The leader of which party… —— 复杂 pied-piping

思路:10a The leader of which party has resigned? 合法——整个 DP 移 spec-CP。10b *Leader of which party has he resigned? ——缺冠词 the,且 he 与 the leader 重复。10c ?Of which party has the leader resigned? 方言/边缘——PP of which party 移 spec-CP。10d ?Which party has the leader of resigned? 边缘——DP which party 移,of 滞留。10e *Which has the leader of party resigned? ——拆分错误(LBC)。

答案:10a 合法;10b 不合法;10c、10d 方言边缘;10e 违反 LBC。

题 11–14:方言与古旧 wh 结构

题 句 解读
11a What sayst thou? 古英语 V-to-C:实义动词 say 提升到 C(强 Tns),现代英语不合法
11b What dost thou say? 古英语 do-support + wh 移位
11c What didst not like? 古英语 do-support 否定,空 pro 主语
11d What visions have I seen! 古英语 wh 感叹句,have 助动词提升
12a What I’m gon’ do? 非裔美国英语:wh 问句不倒装(wh-in-situ 风格),be 动词不提升
12b How she’s doing? 同 12a:wh 短语前置但助动词不倒装(与标准英语 How is she doing? 对照)
13a they wondered [which one that he chose] 贝尔法斯特英语:embedded wh 从句可同时有 wh 短语前置与补语标记 that(that 不触发 MFCF)
13b they wondered [which one did he choose] 贝尔法斯特英语:embedded wh 从句可 T-to-C 倒装
13c *they wondered [which one that did he choose] MFCF:不能同时 wh 前置 + that + 倒装
14a they wondered [if/whether/(that) we had gone] 贝尔法斯特英语:if/whether/that 都可作补语标记
14b *they wondered [if/whether had we gone] if/whether 从句不能倒装(与 13b 对照)
14c they wondered [had we gone] 贝尔法斯特英语:inverted 补语从句(空 C + T-to-C)

表 6-3 方言/古旧 wh 句解读

3Exercise 6.2(原书 p.238–240)

题干(逐字抄录):Discuss the derivation of the bracketed restrictive relative clauses in the sentences below, drawing tree diagrams to show their superficial structure and saying why they are grammatical or ungrammatical in standard varieties of English:

1a He is someone [who you can talk to]
1b He is someone [you can talk to]
1c He is someone [to whom you can talk]
1d *He is someone [to you can talk]
2a *He is someone [who that you can talk to]
2b He is someone [that you can talk to]
2c *He is someone [to whom that you can talk]
2d *He is someone [to that you can talk]
3a They recruit people [who have got a degree]
3b They recruit people [who’ve got a degree]
3c They recruit people [that have got a degree]
3d *They recruit people [have got a degree]
4a *This is the way [how he behaved]
4b This is the way [he behaved]
4c *This is the way [that how he behaved]
4d This is the way [that he behaved]
5a *I need someone [who to love me]
5b I need someone [to love me]
5c *I need someone [who to love]
5d I need someone [to love]
6a I need a place [in which to stay]
6b *I need a place [in to stay]
6c *I need a place [which to stay in]
6d I need a place [to stay in]
6e *I need a place [where to stay]
6f I need a place [to stay]
7a *I need a place [in which for her to stay]
7b *I need a place [in for her to stay]
7c *I need a place [which for her to stay in]
7d I need a place [for her to stay in]
7e *I need a place [where for her to stay]
7f I need a place [for her to stay]
8a *This is no way [how to behave]
8b This is no way [to behave]
8c *This is no way [how for you to behave]
8d This is no way [for you to behave]

Helpful hints(原书提示,编者译述)

3b,d 与 5a,b:考虑关系代词作关系子句主语时是在 spec-CP 还是 spec-TP(3d 的答案可能与 3b,d 及上一题不同),以及 have-cliticisation 与关系代词空拼写的关系。4、8:how 是方式代词/PRN,源自动词 behave 的补语;识别 how 与 who/which/where/why 的区别。

逐题解答

题 1a He is someone [who you can talk to] —— 合法(原书 model answer)

思路:to + who → PP to who;与 talk 合成 VP talk to who;与 can 合成 T-bar can talk to who;与 you 合成 TP。空补语标记(that 的空 counterpart)[WH,EPP]。[WH] 吸引最近带 wh 特征的最大投射PRN who 到 spec-CP。

CPPRNwhoC”CøTPPRNyouT”TcanVPVtalkPPPtoPRNwho

题 1a someone [who you can talk to]:who 移 spec-CP,介词 to 滞留

答案:合法。who 移 spec-CP,RPSC 允许限定关系子句 overt 拼写。

题 1b He is someone [you can talk to] —— 合法(关系代词空拼写)

思路:同 1a,但 RPSC 允许限定关系子句中 spec-CP 的关系代词 who 空拼写(PF 层不发音),表面看就是 [you can talk to],无 overt 关系代词。

答案:合法。who 在 spec-CP 空拼写(RPSC 可选)。

题 1c He is someone [to whom you can talk] —— 合法(pied-piping)

思路:正式英语,整个 PP to whom pied-pipe 到 spec-CP。

答案:合法。PP to whom 移 spec-CP。

题 1d *He is someone [to you can talk] —— 不合法

思路:to 滞留但 who/whom 丢了——既没 pied-pipe 也没 stranding,介词 to 成了无宾语的孤儿。

错因修法:要么 [who you can talk to](1a),要么 [to whom you can talk](1c)。

题 2a *[who that you can talk to] —— 不合法(MFCF)

思路:CP 同时有 overt specifier who 与 overt 补语标记 that,违反 MFCF。

CPPRNwhoC”CthatTPPRNyouT”TcanVPVtalkPPPtoPRNwho

题 2a *who that you can talk to:spec-CP(who) 与 head C(that) 双重填充,违反 MFCF

错因修法:要么 [who you can talk to](1a),要么 [that you can talk to](2b)。

题 2b [that you can talk to] —— 合法

思路:that 是补语标记,spec-CP 的关系代词空拼写。

答案:合法。that 补语标记 + 空 wh 拷贝。

题 2c/d *[to whom that…] / *[to that…] —— 不合法

思路:2c PP to whom + that 双重填充(MFCF);2d to 后接 that 不是 wh 代词。

错因修法:2c → [to whom you can talk];2d → [that you can talk to]。

题 3a–d people [who/that/∅ have got a degree] —— 关系代词主语

思路:3a who 作关系子句主语,移 spec-CP;3b who’ve = who+have cliticisation(who 元音结尾);3c that 补语标记 + 空 wh 拷贝;3d *[have got a degree] 既无 overt 关系代词也无 that,且关系子句主语位置空——若按 Pesetsky-Torrego,关系代词作主语应在 spec-CP,但这里既不发 who 也不发 that,违反 RPSC(限定关系子句即使空写也需有 wh 拷贝,不能裸奔)。

答案:3a、3b、3c 合法;3d 不合法(裸关系子句,无 wh 拷贝无补语标记)。

题 4a–d the way [how/∅/that he behaved] —— how 关系子句

思路:how 是方式副词/PRN。4a *[how he behaved] 不合法——the way 本身已是方式,how 与 the way 重复;4b [he behaved] 合法(空 wh 拷贝);4c *[that how] MFCF;4d [that he behaved] 合法(that 补语标记)。

答案:4b、4d 合法;4a 语义重复;4c MFCF。

题 5a–d someone [who to love me] —— 不定式关系子句

思路:5a *[who to love me] 不合法——不定式(非限定)关系子句中 RPSC 要求关系代词必须空拼写,不能 overt who;5b [to love me] 合法(空 wh 拷贝,PRO 主语);5c *[who to love] 不合法(同 5a,overt who 违 RPSC);5d [to love] 合法(空 wh 拷贝作 love 宾语)。

答案:5b、5d 合法;5a、5c 违反 RPSC(非限定关系子句必须空写)。

题 6a–f a place [in which/∅ to stay] —— 不定式 pied-piping

思路:6a [in which to stay] 合法——正式,PP in which pied-pipe,which 空写(不定式必空写);6b *[in to stay] 介词无宾语;6c *[which to stay in] 不合法(不定式 overt which 违 RPSC);6d [to stay in] 合法——介词 in 滞留,空 wh 拷贝;6e *[where to stay] 不合法——where 是关系副词,在不定式关系子句中不能 overt(RPSC);6f [to stay] 合法——空 wh 拷贝。

答案:6a、6d、6f 合法;6b、6c、6e 不合法。

题 7a–f a place [for her to stay] —— for-to 不定式关系子句

思路:7d [for her to stay in] 合法——for 补语标记,her 是 for 的宾语/不定式主语,介词 in 滞留,空 wh 拷贝;7f [for her to stay] 合法;7a/7b/7c/7e 都不合法——不定式 overt which/where 违 RPSC,或介词无宾语。

答案:7d、7f 合法;7a、7b、7c、7e 不合法。

题 8a–d no way [how/∅ to behave] —— 方式

思路:同题 4,how 与 no way 语义重复;8b [to behave]、8d [for you to behave] 合法;8a *[how to behave]、8c *[how for you to behave] 不合法(how 重复)。

答案:8b、8d 合法;8a、8c 不合法。
Noscit 句法研习 · MP 系列